Emigration of Greek Knowledge to the Arab World.

The period described in this chapter reflects activity prior to the establishment of surgical centers in Europe in the twelfth century. It is a kind of prologue to the reintroduction of high-quality surgical practice. Religious squabbles within Christianity led to European medicine and surgery, the principles of which were written in Greek, being transported eastwards into the region newly dominated by Islam. There the works were translated into Arabic and during three to four hundred years, the works were not only retained but were enriched by contributions from within Arab culture. This evolution naturally enough came to affect what happened next. However, one thing is clear and was even commented on as early as by Albucasis. The surgeon's respect and distinction within society had depreciated during the sojourn of medical science in the Islamic world, with physicians being regarded as distinctly superior beings. With regard to specific details related to opening the head there was broad consistency between the various authors all of whom seem to have been greatly influenced by Paul of Ægina. Thus, there is no mention of the crown trepan. Opening the skull was performed with the non-perforating trepans making small holes which were connected with chisels or lenticulars. The indication to do this was separation of the dura from the bone. Whether or not the sutures should be avoided when trepanning is not a topic mentioned in these writings. There was also no recommendation for prophylactic trepanation.

Late Middle Ages-Europe.

At the end of the late Middle Ages, there had been changes in indications for surgery, with prophylactic trepanation falling out of favor. The management of wounds and the methods for opening the cranium had become fairly standardized. Narrow non-plunging trepans were the preferred drills, and cranial openings were widened by the use of multiple drill holes connected with chisels of which the lenticular was preferred. Concerns about damaging the dura led Theodoric to delay trepanation until the clinical changes reflected separation of the dura from the cranium, at least in his view. Draining pus remained the main indication for trepanation. In no case was the level of consciousness considered in determining the need to open the cranium.

Europe following Galen.

Unlike previous chapters, this is not about the teachings of a specific individual. Rather, it traces the slow changes in milieu and practice in the centuries following the death of Galen. They were to be profound. The Roman Empire fell in the middle of the 5th century. The Christian religion became increasingly dominant in the west, not only in spiritual matters but also in every activity related to culture and learning. The Byzantine Empire became increasingly important in the east. Islam was founded and began to spread in competition with Christianity. Academic advances develop best in stable societies so that it is not surprising that this was not a period of new ideas. Galen had gained overwhelming authority. The most valuable work on surgery to be written during these times was Book VI of Paul of Ægina's encyclopedia.

Comparative Law and Christianity-A Plank in the Eye?

This article examines the epistemic bias of comparative law scholarship. Comparatists are unable or unwilling to recognise the religious dimensions in Western law as they see religion only in the context of non-Western law. This problem is typical of modern macro-comparative law, which fails to recount the influence of Christianity on Western law and legal culture. The article invites legal scholars to reach beyond the notions of 'religious law' and 'secular law' in terms of classifying the world's legal systems. Firstly, the article explains how comparative law has a problematic relationship with religion; secondly, it shows that, despite Christianity having been deemed a thing of the past, its influence can and should also be charted in modern law. I argue for a need to rethink the manner in which Western law is depicted as a thoroughly secular law as opposed to the religious law of exoticised others.

Relational Harm: On the Divisive Effects of Global Health Volunteering at a Hospital in Rural Zambia.

Drawing on ethnographic research at a hospital in rural Zambia, I show how the presence of white Christian medical volunteers from the United States damaged relations between local health workers and patients. Working from a position of economic and racial privilege, medical volunteers received praise from many patients and residents. However, these positive attitudes incited resentment among many Zambian health workers who felt that their own efforts and expertise were being undervalued or ignored. Focusing on these disrupted relationships, I argue that it is crucial to understand how global health volunteering can produce enduring forms of "relational harm".

Breastfeeding Attitudes and Social Support Among Christian African Americans.

Purpose: To describe the breastfeeding attitudes and subjective norms of breastfeeding among African American Christians from the New England region. Study Design and Methods: A study was conducted using an online survey. Participants were recruited from four Christian churches in the New England region during the summer of 2021. Responses from direct questions about exclusive breastfeeding histories were tabulated. Open-ended question responses were analyzed using thematic analysis. Two results were merged to make the conclusions. Results: Participants (n = 101) aged 18-44 years (62.3%), college graduates (72.3%), and Catholics (71.4%) responded. Participants were willing to recommend six months of exclusive breastfeeding practice to relatives (89.9%) and friends/peers (87.9%) and support relatives (94.0%) and friends/peers (94.8%) to practice exclusive breastfeeding for 6 months. Breastfeeding attitude themes included beneficial and natural and receiving breastfeeding support. Subjective norms of breastfeeding themes included receiving support for breastfeeding; Christian leadership, teachings, and communal engagements; and gaps in Christian influence. Conclusion: The African American Christian community may be an emergent agent of breastfeeding social support for African American Christian women who chose to breastfeed. Health professionals should collaborate with African American Christian leadership to initiate programs to promote breastfeeding among African American Christian women in the United States.

Inspired anatomy education: Might God be relevant?

Anatomy education is essential for developing healthcare professionals, and discussion continues about factors that impact and improve the anatomy learning environment. Neglected in this discussion is a consideration of the diverse religious assumptions and beliefs that college students bring to anatomy learning. Surveys of religion among United States college students indicate that many identify as religious and Christian. This viewpoint commentary summarizes main elements of Christian theology and anthropology, discusses the holistic and positive view of the body presented in Christian scripture, and outlines how these Christian beliefs inform and impact student preparation for anatomy education and human body dissection, address ethical issues in body donation, and support professionalism for future career practice.

Religion, Spirituality, and Health Revisited: Bringing Mainline Western Protestant Perspectives Back into the Discourse-Theology's "Seat at the Table".

Theological perspectives have been given short shrift in the literature on religion and health research. This study demonstrates how including different schools of mainline Western Protestant theological thought (evolutionist, correlationist, and dialectical) in the scientific process could contribute to clarifying controversies. The issue is not just theoretical: Theology can even challenge assumptions on elicitability and reproducibility. Theology perceives spirituality as a dialogue with the Total Other, thus making each encounter with the transcendent (not just the individuality of the person) unique and unpredictable. By accepting setbacks on a journey with wide-ranging aspirations, theology redefines health as the momentum of constant striving toward the divine spirit. Since these theological insights relate to interventions that affect patients' intimacy, attempting to recognize the (albeit implicit) spiritual-theological standpoint of the patient and the self-and how these relate to authentic traditions of spirituality-appears to be an essential prerequisite for ethical spiritual intervention.

"God is in Control": Religious Coping in Sermons About the COVID-19 Pandemic in the Reformed Church in Zambia.

Coping is one of the mechanisms employed by people to deal with crises or disasters such as the global COVID-19 pandemic. The RCOPE, developed by Kenneth Pargament et al., is a quantitative scale to measure styles of religious coping. This article applies the RCOPE qualitatively to live-streamed sermons in the Reformed Church in Zambia, held in the two-month lockdown period in Zambia from the end of March to the end of May 2020. A total of 20 pastors contributed 134 sermons that were transcribed and analyzed using the full RCOPE. The results show that pastors in the RCZ mainly encourage their audiences to seek spiritual support, gain control over the situation, and give a positive meaning to the pandemic. The idea that God is in control is important behind all of these means of religious coping in the Zambian sermons. This qualitative analysis also discovered possible lacunae in the RCOPE questionnaire, especially concerning its applicability to evangelical forms of global Christianity, such as the lack of attention to God's intervention and control.

Neopentecostalismo, teología de la prosperidad y neoliberalismo. Hacia una lógica religiosa para el Homo oeconoimicus

El presente escrito tiene por objetivo demostrar que la relación entre la teología de la prosperidad, que se toma aquí específicamente en su expresión neopentecostal, y el neoliberalismo, entendido desde su dimensión de fuerza productora de subjetividad, se ha fortalecido dentro del actual marco de reproducción sistémica del capitalismo. Para esto se divide el escrito en tres partes: la primera, que se encarga de exponer conceptualmente el neopentecostalismo; la segunda, donde se expone la teología de la prosperidad; y, por último, aquella que trabaja la manera en que el fenómeno religioso neopentecostal, como ejemplo de fe de la prosperidad, se vincula con el neoliberalismo. De este modo, y a partir del método documental-bibliográfico, se puede evidenciar cómo es que el actual viraje del capitalismo se dirige hacia ciertas prácticas y discursos religiosos, de modo que pueda capturarlos y volverlos a su favor, ya que dichas prácticas y discursos permiten, entre otras cosas, una alternativa para curar, momentáneamente, el sufrimiento subjetivo que padece el Homo oeconomicus por vivir como manda el sistema.

The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate the relationship theology of prosperity, which is specifically taken in its neo-Pentecostal expression, and neoliberalism as necessary within the current framework of systemic reproduction of capitalism. For this, the writing is divided into three parts: the first, which is responsible for conceptually exposing neo-Pentecostalism; the second, where the theology of prosperity is exposed; and, finally, the one that works on the way in which the neo-Pentecostal religious phenomenon, as an example of faith in prosperity, is linked to neoliberalism. In this way, it can be evidenced how the current turn of capitalism is directed towards religion, so that it can capture it and turn it in its favor, since it allows an alternative to cure, momentarily, the subjective suffering of Homo oeconomicus that inhabits within the system that he himself produced.

O objetivo deste artigo é demonstrar que a relação entre a teologia da prosperidade, específicamente tomada em sua expressão neopentecostal, e o neoliberalismo, entendido a partir de sua dimensão de força produtora de subjetividade, tem se fortalecido no atual quadro de reprodução do capitalismo. Para isso, o escrito está dividido em três partes: a primeira, que se encarrega de expor conceitualmente o neopentecostalismo; a segunda, onde é exposta a teologia da prosperidade; e, por fim, a que trabalha a maneira como o fenômeno religioso neopentecostal, como exemplo de fé na prosperidade, se vincula ao neoliberalismo. Desta forma, e a partir do método bibliográfico-documental, pode-se evidenciar como a atual virada do capitalismo está voltada para a religião, de modo que possa capturá-la e transformá-la a seu favor, pois permite uma alternativa para curar, momentaneamente, o sofrimento subjetivo sofrido pelo homo oeconomicus por viver como manda o sistema.

Human fertility and religions in sub-Saharan Africa: A comprehensive review of publications and data, 2010-2020.

Fertility is declining only slowly in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) and religion may be one factor involved. Based on the literature, we reviewed fertility rates of followers of different religions in SSA, and whether religion influences fertility. We used the Web of Science, Scopus, Google Scholar and reference lists to find papers, selected based on inclusion and exclusion criteria. Within 21 countries, followers of African Indigenous Religions (AIR) had higher fertility (4-58%) than Christians. Within 25 countries, followers of Islam had higher fertility (2-36%) than Christians, though not in Zimbabwe and Uganda (-2% in each). Followers of AIR and Islam had on average similar fertility levels, as had Protestants and Catholics. Fertility was associated with religion-related themes in focus-groups and interviews. The most frequent themes for "increasing fertility" were related to religion (11 cases) and polygamy (11), whereas the most frequent themes for "limiting fertility" were financial constraints (7) and quality of life (5). These and other results suggest that religious denominations and faith contribute to high fertility in SSA.

Do parenting behaviors intended as discipline vary by household religious affiliation in Cameroon?

BACKGROUND: Religious affiliation may account for some variance in parenting behaviors used for disciplinary intent. However, most reported studies of this relationship are limited to high-income countries focused on Christianity. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to determine whether parenting behaviors vary by religion in a low- and middle-income country between Protestant, Catholic, and Muslim groups. It was hypothesized that Protestant households would have higher odds of select parenting behaviors. PARTICIPANTS & SETTINGS: Data from the 2014 Cameroonian Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey, containing a nationally representative household sample, were used. METHODS: Adult caregivers in selected households with a child aged 1-14 years of age participated in interviews containing a standardized disciplinary measure asking about the exposure of one randomly selected child to a series of parent behaviors in the preceding month. RESULTS: Of the 4978 households, 41.6 % were Catholic, 30.9 % Protestant and 27.6 % Muslim. Spanking was the most common of the six types of physical punishments across groups with no association with household religion. In contrast, children in Protestant households had higher odds of being hit with an object compared to the other two groups, but only for younger children. Children in Protestant households also had higher odds of exposure to a combined approach, i.e., use of physical, psychological, and non-violent parent behaviors. CONCLUSIONS: This study advances the examination of the potential influence of household religion on parenting behavior, however further inquiry is needed to examine these patterns in other settings with additional indices of religiosity and disciplinary beliefs.

"In a Religious Celebration"? The Religious Defense of LGBT Rights in U.S. Federal Courts.

This article advances scholarship on the relationship between sexuality, religion, and the law within the United States by analyzing case summaries and court opinions of the federal appellate cases decided between 1990 and 2020 that involve a religion-based claim being used to advance or defend gay and lesbian rights. Contrary to dominant public narratives that position religion uniformly in opposition to progressive sexual values, these cases show how Americans' religious beliefs and practices include diverse sexual identities. We find that the courts' reactions to such cases, however, illustrate the tension within legal discourse and hesitancy for the courts to equate religious and moral values with affirming LGBT identities, people, and rights. Our findings suggest that the courts and litigants define what religion is-and what it is not-by positioning it in relation to sexuality.

Menstrual Health Literacy among Adolescents and Young Adults Who Menstruate: Impact of Christian Family Background and United States Region.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: To compare menstrual health literacy among adolescents and young adults on the basis of family religious background and United States region METHODS: We conducted a cross-sectional online survey of post-menarcheal US adolescents and young adults aged 14-24 years who identified their family religious background, including Christian or non-religious, with recruitment via the social media platform TikTok. We asked participants several questions to assess their health literacy regarding common myths about the use of gonadal steroid hormones for menstrual suppression. RESULTS: From 3250 online survey respondents, 2997 met the criteria for analysis, with 1989 identifying their family as Christian (66.4%) and 1008 identifying their family as non-religious (33.6%), with equal representation by US region. Health literacy was lower among those with a Christian family background, with concerns that menstrual suppression is unhealthy (16.4% vs 10.5% with non-religious background, P < .01), is unsafe (31.4% vs 24.2%, P < .01), and could lead to infertility (32.6% vs 20.0%, P < .01). Similarly, adolescents and young adults from the US South were worried that menstrual suppression is unhealthy (31.5%; P < .01) and would lead to infertility (33.8%; P < .01). CONCLUSION: Health literacy is lower among adolescents and young adults with a Christian family background and those who live in the South. These results demonstrate a need for an evidence-based national curriculum that addresses the safe and effective use of hormonal medications for menstrual suppression.

Pancreatic cancer, depression, and spirituality in therapy: "Unio Mystica" and "Achrayut," 2 case reports.

OBJECTIVES: Pancreatic cancer is a major site of gastrointestinal tumors and remains a leading cause of cancer death in adults in the United States. There is also a strong association between pancreatic cancer and depression. When struggling with cancer, along the different phases of illness, a human being is confronted with manifold issues, which might profoundly interfere with their sense of meaning and purpose. METHODS: From this standpoint, several different therapeutic techniques have been designed to manage the psychological needs of the patients. Here we provide 2 clinical scenarios, where there was a strong religious correlation to the therapeutic techniques employed with patients suffering from pancreatic cancer. RESULTS: The 2 cases described showed some improvement in their overall life view and could recalibrate their expectations based on a strong religious foundation. SIGNIFICANCE OF RESULTS: The role of religion and spirituality in health has also received increasing attention in literature. Religion and spirituality can help patients with cancer find meaning in their illness, provide comfort in the face of existential fears, and receive support from a community of like-minded individuals. In effect, they also provide evidence toward the scope of and integrating the domain of spirituality into holistic cancer care.

[The ritual challenge-Corona and the Holy Spoon]. / Die rituelle Herausforderung ­ Corona und der Kampf um den Heiligen Löffel.

The corona pandemic also triggered crises, even fights, in the religious fields that went beyond the usual disputes about the legitimate definition of religion. Last but not least, they concerned the ritual dimension, as is shown by an example of the liturgy of the Christian Orthodox Churches. A fierce conflict arose within them over the meaning of a ritual artefact, the 'Holy Spoon'. Its use is said to bring salvation, but it can also cause harm. The discourses about the 'Holy Spoon' triggered by the Corona crisis turn out to be discourses about the identity of the Orthodox Church and about its typical 'energetic' definition of reality of transcendence, which had to be secured in the 'field of power' (Bourdieu).

The influences of faith on illness representations and coping procedures of mental and cognitive health among aging Arab refugees: a qualitative study.

Introduction: Refugees experience higher rates of mental illness such as depression and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) which are documented risk factors for dementia. Faith and spiritual practices have been shown to play a significant role in patients' understanding and coping with illness, however, this field of study among refugee populations remains lacking. This study aims to address this literature gap by examining the role of faith on mental health and cognitive health among Arab refugees resettled in Arab and Western countries. Materials and methods: A total of 61 Arab refugees were recruited through ethnic community-based organizations in San Diego, California, United States (N = 29) and Amman, Jordan (N = 32). Participants were interviewed through in-depth, semi-structured interviews or focus groups. Interviews and focus groups were transcribed, translated, and coded using inductive thematic analysis and organized based on Leventhal's Self-Regulation Model. Results: Faith and spiritual practices significantly impact participants' illness perceptions and coping procedures regardless of resettlement country or gender. Several themes emerged: (1) participants believe in the interdependent relationship between mental and cognitive health. (2) There is a self-awareness of the impact of the refugee experience and trauma on participants' mental health problems, leading to a belief of increased personal risk for developing dementia. (3) Spiritual fatalism (belief that events are predetermined by God, fate, or destiny) greatly informs these perceptions of mental and cognitive health. (4) Participants acknowledge that practicing faith improves their mental and cognitive health, and many read scripture to prevent dementia. (5) Finally, spiritual gratitude and trust are important coping procedures that build resilience among participants. Conclusions: Faith and spirituality play an important role in shaping Arab refugees' illness representations and coping procedures of mental and cognitive health. Holistic public health and clinical interventions tailored to the spiritual needs of aging refugees and incorporating religion in prevention strategies are increasingly needed to improve the brain health and wellbeing of refugees.

Integrating Religion and Spirituality into Psychiatric Outpatient Treatment in the United States.

It is common for mental health clients to desire that religion and spirituality (RS) be integrated into their treatment. Despite this preference, clients' RS beliefs often go overlooked in therapy for a variety of reasons including lack of provider training on integration, fear of causing offense, or concerns about wrongly influencing clients. The present study assessed the effectiveness of using a psychospiritual therapeutic curriculum to integrate RS into psychiatric outpatient treatment for highly religious clients (n = 150) seeking services through a faith-based clinic. The curriculum was well accepted by both clinicians and clients, and a comparison of clinical assessments administered at intake and program exit (clients averaged 6.5 months in the program) showed significant improvement across a broad range of psychiatric symptoms. These results suggest the use of a religiously integrated curriculum within a broader psychiatric treatment program is beneficial and may be a way to overcome clinicians' RS concerns and shortcomings while meeting religious clients' desires for inclusion.

The importance of christianity, customs, and traditions in the national identities of European countries.

Christianity has lost its salience, but customs and traditions maintained their importance in forming national identity in Europe. Using the ISSP National Identity 2003 and 2013 data from 17 European countries, this article tests how the salience of Christianity and sharing of national customs and traditions varies according to the share of Muslim and immigrant population, and whether the association changed across time. Multilevel regressions show that the link between the size of the Muslim population and the salience of Christianity changed between 2003 and 2013. In 2003, the link was negative. In 2013, respondents from countries with larger Muslim populations were more concerned about Christian background of nationals. The link between the share of immigrants and the demand on sharing national customs and traditions changed as well. In 2003, it was negative but, by 2013, it flattened out.